Below is a general skill sequence for helping learners increase their range in reinforcers.
This skill area addresses multiple targets for improving eye contact. It builds on skills that are targeted for following gestures and sets the stage to help the learner target more complex social skills. It is important to note that the therapist and BCBA should take great care to refrain from making this process aversive to the learner. In fact, making eye contact can be a fun and rewarding experience for both the learner and the therapist when programmed for in the appropriate fashion. By breaking down the skill into smaller components and gradually increasing the level of difficulty, the learner may build confidence and success in making eye contact.
How this skill area relates to your assessments!
This skill area aligns with various assessments and their respective domains, with milestone and domain codes provided for reference. Additionally, DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for Autism are included to help clinicians identify how this skill area potentially supports medical necessity in relation to the diagnosis.
VB-MAPP (Verbal Behavior Milestones Assessment and Placement Program)
- Listener Responding, LR 1-M, Attends to a speaker’s voice by making eye contact with the speaker 5 times
- Listener Responding, LR 2-M, Responds to hearing his own name 5 times
AFLS (Assessment of Functional Living Skills)
- Basic Communication, BC1, Follows instructions
- Basic Mobility, MB8, Comes back to caregiver when called
- Basic Skills, BS1, Follows simple verbal directions
- Basic Skills, BS40, Demonstrates eye contact when talking to others
DSM-V Diagnostic Criteria for Autism
- A2, Deficits in nonverbal communicative behaviors used for social interaction, ranging, for example, from poorly integrated verbal and nonverbal communication; to abnormalities in eye contact and body language or deficits in understanding and use of gestures; to a total lack of facial expressions and nonverbal communication.
CDC’s Developmental Milestones
- 9 months, Social/Emotional Milestones, Looks when you call her name
Treatment Plan Goal Ideas
This is a list of treatment plan goals. These are different from the goals you will find in the skill sequence below. Your treatment plan goals encompass any number of goals from the skill sequence. Sometime they will include multiple goals from the sequence (”Learner will label 5 toys”) and sometimes the treatment plan goal will be simply consist of a really important goal from the skill sequence (”Will label caregiver”). An analogy I like to use goes as follows: Each skill sequence goal (commonly known as a “target”) represent each stair on a stair case. The treatment plan goal is the staircase itself. Treatment plan goal ideas for this particular skill area are as follows:
- Learner will look through a 12 inch cylinder and make eye contact with another individual.
- After a preferred item or activity is removed and their name is called, the learner will make eye contact with the person that called their name.
- When a peer has a preferred item or activity that the learner is motivated to engage with, the learner will make eye contact when requesting the item or activity that are motivated for.
- When engaged with a preferred item or activity and the learner’s name is called from a distance of at least 10 feet, the learner will orient and make eye contact with the speaker.
Component Skills
Your learner may need to be fluent in these component skills first before introducing this goal/skill area. Component skills for this skill sequence may include skill areas that are fundamental to other areas. Fluency in the skill areas listed below may increase the likelihood that your learner will succeed in this skill sequence and those afterward.
Intro to Scanning 
Following GesturesSkill Possibilities
Below is a possible skill sequence for working on increasing your learner’s ability to engage in eye contact . Note that every learner is different and that you likely will need to tweak and vary some programming to their needs. Click the triangle icon to view the full description for each skill in the sequence/area.
#1 Gets edible for making eye contact (1:1) - Therapist should monitor the behavior of the learner closely.
- In instances the learner looks towards the therapist’s face or makes eye contact, the therapist should immediately reinforce the learner with a high value edible.
Additional Notes
- In the beginning stages, edible reinforcement may need to be delivered for more limited behaviors (ex: Looks towards therapist from across the room).
- Ideally, the edible would be one that the learner has very limited access to overall (ex: they do not get Goldfish normally, so it's a big deal when they get it at all).
- Pushing the edible into the learner’s hand in order to grant them more salient and immediate access.
- Always check with caregivers to ensure that this is okay and that there aren’t any unforeseen allergies or other medical concerns.
Research/Resources
Diversifying Reinforcers and Why it Matters
#2 Gets edible for making eye contact (1:3-5) - Therapist should monitor the behavior of the learner closely.
- In instances the learner looks towards the therapist’s face or makes eye contact, the therapist should immediately reinforce the learner with a high value edible.
Additional Notes
- In the beginning stages, edible reinforcement may need to be delivered for more limited behaviors (ex: Looks towards therapist from across the room).
- Ideally, the edible would be one that the learner has very limited access to overall (ex: they do not get Goldfish normally, so it’s a big deal when they get it at all).
- Pushing the edible into the learner’s hand in order to grant them more salient and immediate access.
- Always check with caregivers to ensure that this is okay and that there aren’t any unforeseen allergies or other medical concerns.
Research/Resources
Diversifying Reinforcers and Why it Matters
#3 Gets edible for making eye contact (1:10) - Therapist should monitor the behavior of the learner closely.
- In instances the learner looks towards the therapist’s face or makes eye contact, the therapist should immediately reinforce the learner with preferred praise.
- In every 10 instances of eye contact, the therapist should reinforce with a highly preferred edible.
Additional Notes
- Ideally, the edible would be one that the learner has very limited access to overall (ex: they do not get Goldfish normally, so it’s a big deal when they get it at all).
- Pushing the edible into the learner’s hand in order to grant them more salient and immediate access.
- Always check with caregivers to ensure that this okay and that there aren’t any unforeseen allergies or other medical concerns.
Research/Resources
#4 Looks into a larger item How to Run
- Therapist should present something to look into/through (Ex: A window, a trash can, a refrigerator, or a toy box).
- Therapist should instruct the learner to “look” with a gesture prompt.
- Score correctly if learner looks into/through the item and reinforce accordingly.
Additional Notes
- Bringing the learner over to the item and having preferred stimuli in or on the other side of the item could aid in mastery.
Research/Resources
#5 Looks in cylinder with a gesture How to Run
- Therapist should present a long 12+ inch tube, box, or cylinder.
- Therapist should instruct the learner to “look” with a gesture prompt.
- Score correctly if learner puts eyes to the opening of the item.
Additional Notes
- Positioning the tube, box, or cylinder near the learner's face may decrease the response effort and make it more likely that the learner will engage in the correct behavior.
Research/Resources
How to Run
- Therapist should present a long 12+ inch tube, box, or cylinder.
- Therapist should instruct the learner to “look” through one end of the item.
- Score correctly if learner puts eyes to the opening of the item.
Additional Notes
- Positioning the tube, box, or cylinder near the learner's face may decrease the response effort and make it more likely that the learner will engage in the correct behavior.
Research/Resources
#7 Makes eye contact through 12-inch cylinder How to Run
- Therapist should present a long 12+ inch tube, box, or cylinder.
- While looking through one side of the tube, therapist should instruct the learner to (”Name, look”) through one end of the other end of the item.
- Score correctly if learner puts eyes to the opening of the item and makes eye contact with the therapist.
Additional Notes
- Positioning the tube, box, or cylinder near the learner's face may decrease the response effort and make it more likely that the learner will engage in the correct behavior.
Research/Resources
#8 Makes eye contact through 6-inch cylinder How to Run
- Therapist should present a long 6+ inch tube, box, or cylinder. ERROR - this originally said a 12+ inch tube, so I changed it to 6 but idk if you still want it to 6+
- While looking through one side of the tube, therapist should instruct the learner to (”Name, look”) through one end of the other end of the item.
- Score correctly if learner puts eyes to the opening of the item and makes eye contact with the therapist.
Additional Notes
- Positioning the tube, box, or cylinder near the learner's face may decrease the response effort and make it more likely that the learner will engage in the correct behavior.
Research/Resources
#9 Makes eye contact through 2-3 inch cylinder How to Run
- Therapist should present a short 2-3 inch tube, box, or cylinder.
- While looking through one side of the tube, therapist should instruct the learner to (”Name, look”) through one end of the other end of the item.
- Score correctly if learner puts eyes to the opening of the item and makes eye contact with the therapist.
Additional Notes
- Positioning the tube, box, or cylinder near the learner's face may decrease the response effort and make it more likely that the learner will engage in the correct behavior.
Research/Resources
#10 Makes eye contact when name is called (after SR+ removed) How to Run
- Therapist should gently remove a preferred item-activity and immediately prompt the learner to look at them (”Name, look”).
- Score correctly if learner makes eye contact. Immediately return preferred item/activity.
Additional Notes
Materials
Research/Resources
#11 Makes eye contact when manding How to Run
- In instances where the learner is manding for a preferred item…
- …gently withhold the item until they make eye contact (a verbal prompt will likely be required).
- Score correctly if they make eye contact within 3-5 seconds of the mand.
- Allow immediate access to the desired item/activity once eye contact is made.
Additional Notes
Materials
Research/Resources
#12 Makes eye contact with peer when manding How to Run
- In instances where the learner is manding for a preferred item with a peer…
- …the peer should gently withhold the item until they make eye contact (a verbal prompt will likely be required).
- Score correctly if they make eye contact within 3-5 seconds of the mand.
- Allow immediate access to the desired item/activity once eye contact is made.
Additional Notes
Materials
Research/Resources
#13 Makes eye contact at 3-5 feet (w/ verbal) How to Run
- During a time period where the learner is not engaged with a preferred item/activity, at 3-5 feet away, ask them to look (“(Name), look”).
- Learner should make eye contact. Score correctly if they have done so within 3-5 seconds.
- Allow immediate access to a preferred item/activity.
Additional Notes
Materials
Research/Resources
#14 Makes eye contact at 10+ feet (w/ verbal) How to Run
- During a time period where the learner is not engaged with a preferred item/activity, at 10+ feet away, ask them to look (“(Name), look”).
- Learner should make eye contact. Score correctly if they have done so within 3-5 seconds.
- Allow immediate access to a preferred item/activity.
Additional Notes
Materials
Research/Resources
#15 Makes eye contact at 3-5 feet (during SR+) How to Run
- During a time period where the learner is engaged with a preferred item/activity, at 3-5 feet away, ask them to look (“(Name), look”).
- Learner should make eye contact. Score correctly if they have done so within 3-5 seconds.
Additional Notes
- Temporary removal of the preferred item/activity may be necessary to gain the learner’s attention (and their eye contact). However, only gently remove the preferred item/activity if they have not made eye contact within the allotted time span.
Materials
Research/Resources
#16 Makes eye contact at 10 feet (during SR+) How to Run
- During a time period where the learner is engaged with a preferred item/activity, at 10+ feet away, ask them to look (“(Name), look”).
- Learner should make eye contact. Score correctly if they have done so within 3-5 seconds.
- Allow immediate access to a preferred item/activity.
Additional Notes
- Temporary removal of the preferred item/activity may be necessary to gain the learner’s attention (and their eye contact). However, only gently remove the preferred item/activity if they have not made eye contact within the allotted time span.
Materials
Research/Resources
Concurrent Skills
Working on these skills at the same time could help with goal mastery. Maybe your learner has mastered these skills already. Perhaps they are already listed as component skills above. That’s okay! Targeting other learning channels might help your learner.
Following GesturesIntro to Joint Attention (Coming soon!)
Composite Skills
These are the possible next steps for learners who have mastered, or are mastering, the skills listed above. Note that new skill areas may require fluency in other component skills not listed above. Also, you can introduce composite skill sequences prematurely to keep your learner progressing, as generativity may occur earlier than expected.
Greetings (Non-Verbal) 
Intro to PeersFollow the link below to better understand component-composite analysis.
- Auyeung, B., Lombardo, M., Heinrichs, M. et al.
 Oxytocin increases eye contact during a real-time, naturalistic social interaction in males with and without autism. Transl Psychiatry 5, e507 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1038/tp.2014.146
- Carbone, V.J., O’Brien, L., Sweeney-Kerwin, E.J., & Albert, K.M. (2013). Teaching Eye Contact to Children with Autism: A Conceptual Analysis and Single Case Study. Education and Treatment of Children 36(2), 139-159. doi:10.1353/etc.2013.0013
- Cook, J. L., Rapp, J. T., Mann, K. R., McHugh, C., Burji, C., & Nuta, R. (2017). A Practitioner Model for Increasing Eye Contact in Children With Autism. Behavior Modification, 41 (3), 382–404. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145445516689323
- Elizabeth R. Lorah, Shawn P. Gilroy, Philip N. Hineline,
Acquisition of peer manding and listener responding in young children with autism,
Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, Volume 8, Issue 2, 2014, Pages 61-67,
ISSN 1750-9467,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2013.10.009.
- Fonger, A.M., Malott, R.W. Using Shaping to Teach Eye Contact to Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Behav Analysis Practice 12, 216–221 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-018-0245-9
- Kaitlin G. Causin, Kristin M. Albert, Vincent J. Carbone, Emily J. Sweeney-Kerwin,
The role of joint control in teaching listener responding to children with autism and other developmental disabilities, Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, Volume 7, Issue 9, 2013, Pages 997-1011, ISSN 1750-9467,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2013.04.011.
Consistent with ethical obligations outlined by the Behavior Analysis Certification Board (BACB), users acknowledge that goal selection/direction is the responsibility of the BCBA. Users understand that goals should be tailored to the learner while ultimately involving the input of clients/stakeholders. Users understand their ethical obligations to the client/stakeholder concerning the selection, implementation, design, and minimization of risk regarding behavior change interventions as outlined in BACB Code. As such, this skill sequence serves as a general framework for generating ideas around this particular skill area and not as an assessment or curriculum.
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